Peru

            Lima, Perú has served the seat  of government for  both the Incas and Spaniards, thus making Perú  a land that is rich in history and culture. 

Peoples/Languages  

According to the 1994 State Department report,  Peru  has 22.9 million inhabitants and sixty-nine percent of the people live in the city. The main people groupings are Indian (45%), Mestizos (37%), and Caucasians (15%). Out of all of my case study countries, Perú has the highest percentage of indigenous people. ^[1]   Some Peruvians also are of African descent, and Lima and the coastal cities have Chinese and Japanese communities.    As been mentioned earlier, Mestizos form a  bridge between the Hispanic-European and Indian societies.  Caucasians tend to be culturally homogeneous throughout the country, whereas the Mestizos and especially the Indians show greater cultural diversity.  However, due to factors such as education, economic development, and the movement from rural to urban areas,  a more homogeneous national culture is developing, especially in major cities.

History  

When the Spanish landed in 1531, Peru's territory  was the center  of the highly developed Inca civilization.  The Inca Empire, centered at Cusco,  extended over a vast region, all the way  from northern Ecuador to central Chile.  In search of Inca wealth, the Spanish explorer Francisco Pizarro arrived in the territory after the Incas had fought a debilitating civil war and easily conquered the weakened people.  By 1533,  the Spaniards had conquered the Inca capital at Cusco , and the Spanish had consolidated control by 1542.  Due the large amount of gold and silver, Perú became the principal source of Spanish wealth and power in South America.

Pizarro founded Lima in 1535.  The viceroyalty established at Lima in 1542 initially had jurisdiction over all of South America except Portuguese Brazil.  By the time of the wars of independence (1820-24), Lima had become the most distinguished and aristocratic colonial capital and the chief Spanish stronghold in America.

Peru's independence movement was led by Jose de San Martin of Argentina and Simon Bolivar of Venezuela.  San Martin proclaimed Peruvian independence from Spain on July 28, 1821.  Emancipation was completed in December 1824, when Gen. Antonio Jose de Sucre defeated the Spanish troops at Ayacucho, ending Spanish rule in South America.  Spain made futile attempts to regain its former colonies, but in 1879 it finally recognized Peru's independence.  

After independence, Perú and its neighbors engaged in intermittent territorial disputes.  Chile's victory over Peru and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific (1879-83) resulted in a territorial settlement.  Following a clash between Peru and Ecuador in 1941, the Rio Protocol--of which the United States is one of four guarantors--sought to establish the boundary between the two countries.  (Continuing boundary disagreement last led to a brief armed conflict in early 1981 and in 1995). ^[2]  

Political Situation  

The military has played a very important role  in Peruvian history.  Coups have repeatedly interrupted civilian constitutional government.  The most recent period of military rule (1968-80) began when Gen. Juan Velasco Alvarado overthrew elected President Fernando Belaunde Terry of the Popular Action Party (AP). Because of Velasco's economic mismanagement and deteriorating health, he was replaced by Gen. Francisco Morales Bermudez Cerruti in 1975. In the May 1980 elections, President Belaunde Terry was returned to office by an impressive plurality.

During the 1980s, illegal cultivation of coca was established in large areas on the eastern Andean slope.  Rural terrorism by Sendero Luminoso and the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement increased during this time and derived significant financial support from the illegal drug industry.  It is estimated that these two Maoist terrorist groups killed  26,000 people and inflicted ten billion dollars in damage to the country (Johnstone 1993:444).

In 1992, President Fujimori suspended the constitution and took over the country. Although constitutional authority was eventually restored, many criticized Fujimori’s actions. However, due to his   radical moves and the capturing key leaders of the Sendero Luminoso,  these two movement no longer terrorize the country.  Perú is once again prospering economically and the  approval of Fujimori could be seen by his overwhelming presidential reelection in 1995. . 

Economy  

In the 1980s the economy suffered from hyperinflation, declining per capita output, and mounting external debt. Peru was shut off from IMF and World Bank support in the mid-1980s because of its huge debt arrears. An austerity program implemented shortly after the Fujimori government took office in July 1990 contributed to a third consecutive yearly contraction of economic activity, but the slide came to a halt late that year, and in 1991 output rose 2.4%.

Lima obtained a financial rescue package from multilateral lenders in September 1991, although it faced $14 billion in arrears on its external debt. By working with the IMF and World Bank on new financial conditions and arrangements, the government succeeded in ending its arrears by March 1993. The Peruvian economy has become increasingly market-oriented, with major privatizations  completed in 1994 in the mining and telecommunications industries.  

Education  

I felt that it was significant to note that under the 1993 constitution, primary education is free and compulsory.  Interestingly enough, the  Minister of Education appoints all public school teachers. It is estimated that eighty-four percent of Peru's students attend public schools at all levels.  Also, school enrollment has been rising sharply for years, due to a widening educational effort by the government and a growing school-age population.  Still, illiteracy is more than 70% in isolated, mountainous areas and is estimated at 28% in urban areas.  Elementary and secondary school enrollment is about 5 million.  University enrollment is more than 250,000 (State Department 1994).  

Religious Mix  

Eight-nine percent of the country is still Roman Catholic, but they are only growing at a rate of 1.5%. Concerning the Catholic Church, Johnstone writes, “The Catholic Church is in a crisis. Over 80% of its clergy are foreign. It is polarized between the traditionalists and those who espouse liberation theology” (1993:445).

On the other hand, Evangelicals have been growing and are now a significant source of leadership, stability, and hope (Johnstone 1993:445).  According to the 1993 statistics (Johnstone 444, 445), 7.7% of the population is now Protestant (5.7% Evangelical) with an annual growth rate of 7.7%.

Cultural Aspects 

As in other Latin American countries, the relationship between Hispanic and Indian cultures determines much of the nation's cultural expression.  During pre-Columbian times, Peru was one of the major centers of artistic expression in America.  Pre-Inca cultures, such as Chavin, Paracas, Nazca, Chimu, and Tiahuanaco, were successful in developing  high-quality pottery, textiles, and sculpture.  Drawing upon these earlier cultures, the Incas continued to maintain these crafts but went one step further made some impressive achievements in architecture.  The great fortress of Machu Picchu and the buildings at Cusco are excellent  examples of Inca architectural design.

Perú has passed through various intellectual stages--from colonial Hispanic culture to European Romanticism after independence.  The early 20th century brought a new emphasis on the indigenous people with a new awareness of their culture and contribution.   Since World War II, Peruvian writers, artists, and intellectuals have actively participated in worldwide intellectual and artistic movements, drawing especially on U.S. and European trends.  

Honduras  

            Honduras is a small, mountainous land located in Central America. There are six million inhabitants with the largest concentration residing in Tegulcigalpa (800,000).

Peoples/Languages 

92.6% of the population is Spanish speaking (87.4% Mestizo; 2% white; 2% Afro-American). Only 4.6% is Amerindians. Spanish is the predominant language, although some English is spoken along the northern coast and on the Caribbean Bay Islands.  Indigenous Indian dialects and the Garifuna dialect also are spoken.  

History  

The restored Mayan ruins near the Guatemalan border in Copan reflect the great Mayan culture that arose in the fourth century.  Mayan artifacts also can be found at the National Museum in Tegucigalpa.  This culture had declined by the time Columbus sighted the region in 1502, naming it "Honduras" (meaning "depths") for the deep water off the coast. 

Spaniard Hernan Cortes arrived in 1524.  The Spanish began founding settlements along the coast, and Honduras came under the control of the Captaincy General of Guatemala.  The cities of Comayagua and Tegucigalpa developed as early mining centers.     Honduras, along with the other Central American provinces, gained independence from Spain in 1821; it then briefly was annexed to the Mexican Empire.  In 1823, Honduras joined the newly formed United Provinces of Central America.  Before long, though, social and economic differences between Honduras and its regional neighbors exacerbated harsh partisan strife among Central American leaders and brought on the federation's collapse in 1838.  Gen. Francisco Morazan--a Honduran national hero--led unsuccessful efforts to maintain the federation, and restoring Central American unity remained the chief aim of Honduran foreign policy until after World War I.  

Since independence, Honduras has been plagued with nearly 300 internal rebellions, civil wars, and changes of government, more than half occurring during this century.  The country traditionally lacked both an economic infrastructure and social and political integration.  Its agriculturally based economy came to be dominated by U.S. companies that established vast banana plantations along the north coast.  Foreign capital, plantation life, and conservative politics held sway in Honduras from the late 19th until the mid-20th century.  

Political Situation  

During the relatively stable years of the Great Depression, Honduras was controlled by the harshly authoritarian Gen. Tiburcio Carias Andino.  His ties to dictators in neighboring countries and to U.S. banana companies helped him maintain power until 1948.  By then, provincial military leaders had begun to gain control of the two major parties, the Nationalists and the Liberals.

But in October 1963, conservative military officers preempted constitutional elections and deposed Villeda in a bloody coup.  These officers exiled Liberal Party members and took control of the national police.  The armed forces, led by Gen. Lopez Arellano and supported by the National Party, governed until 1970.

The country enjoyed its most rapid economic growth, during the regimes of General Melgar Castro (1975-78) and General Paz Garcia (1978-83). This was partly due to greater international demand for its products and the availability of foreign commercial lending.. 

Honduras has been a democratic civilian government since 1984. With strong endorsement and support from the Honduran military, the Suazo administration had ushered in the first peaceful transfer of power between civilian presidents in more than 30 years. President Callejas took office in January 1990.  One of Callejas' first acts as President was to have the Congress enact an economic reform package aimed at reducing the deficit and effecting widespread structural reforms.  The government also took steps to deal with an overvalued exchange rate, major structural barriers to investment, and developing new exports.

Despite the Callejas administration's economic reforms, growing public dissatisfaction with the rising cost of living and with seemingly widespread government corruption led voters in 1993 to elect Liberal Party candidate Carlos Roberto Reina over Nationalist Party contender Oswaldo Ramos Soto, with Reina winning 56% of the vote.

President Reina was sworn in January 27, 1994, promising a "Moral Revolution" to curb corruption.  He has taken some steps to implement that policy, but much remains to be done.  His government has been preoccupied by the need to meet a fiscal deficit crisis and an energy crisis, both inherited from the previous administration.

The military now plays a less intrusive role in government, but as in many Latin American countries, it still seems to answer more to its own commander than tot he president of the country.   

Economy  

Honduras is one of the poorest and least developed countries in Latin America. The economy is based mostly on agriculture.  The 1995 State Department Report concludes that  some of the  basic problems facing the country include: Rapid population growth, high unemployment, inflation, a lack of basic services, a large and inefficient public sector, and the dependence of the export sector mostly on coffee and bananas, which are subject to sharp price fluctuations.

Johnstone writes, “The broken terrain and unequal distribution of land and wealth have hindered development. Insensitive exploitation by multinationals and corruption of politicians have helped to keep Honduras poor” (1993:263). However, a far-reaching reform program, initiated by former President CALLEJAS in 1990 and scaled back by President REINA, is beginning to take hold.  

Religious Mix  

            Protestants make up 11%  of the population, of which Evangelicals are 10.4%. The annual growth rate is 6%. Response to the gospel over the past twenty years has been dramatic. Johnstone believes that this a large part of the receptivity is due to the economic upheaval (1993:264).

Roman Catholics make up 85.5% of the population, but they have been declining due to 80% of the leadership is foreign and there is widespread nominalism, pagan practices, and immorality (Johnstone 1993:264).  

El Salvador  

            This country has the reputation of being the smallest and most densely populated mainland Spanish-speaking state in the Americas (Johnstone 1993:207). 

Peoples/Languages  

            Of the six million inhabitants, less than 6%  would be considered indigenous. Mestizos make up 92% of the population with Whites comprising 1.7% of the population.  

History  

Before the Spanish conquerors arrived in 1522, El Salvador was called "Cuscatlán" a word that means "Land of Gems and Jewels". The civilization who lived in what now is El Salvador had its roots in 1500 B.C. as it is demonstrated by the many archaeological pieces found at the Tazumal ruins. The many archaeological sites in the country make us believe that the Salvadorean land has been one of the most inhabited places in the world during the last 3500 years (Biron and Jimenéz 1995:History).

The first inhabitants were Potomanes, Lencas and Chortis, followed by the Pipiles and Uluas, tribes that settled in the country's Central and Western zones. The first Spanish attempt to subjugate this area failed in 1524, when Pedro de Alvarado was forced to retreat by Pipil forces.  In 1525, he returned and succeeded in bringing the district under control of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, which retained its authority until 1821 despite an abortive revolution in 1811.  

Political Situation  

            Concerning the tragic civil war that has plagued El Salvador, Patrick Johnstone write, "A long series of corrupt dictatorships and gross inequalities between the rich and poor provoked armed leftist insurrection in 1981. Over 75,000 were killed in fighting, cross-fire or through right-wing death squads" (1993:207).  

            However, the good news is that in 1992 a peace accord was signed which has successfully brought an end to the bloody civil war that has plagued the country. 

Economy  

 In 1992-94 the government made substantial progress toward privatization and deregulation of the economy. Growth in national output in 1991-94 nearly averaged 5%, exceeding growth in population for the first time since 1987; and inflation in 1994 of 10% was down from 19% in 1993 (University of Texas 1992).  

Religious Mix  

            Protestants make up 20.6% of the population, of which Evangelicals are 19.8% (Johnstone 1993:207). The bitter civil war has brought a new openness and harvest (in 1960 Evangelicals were only 2.3% of the population). Growth among the Pentecostal groups have been especially dramatic.

            Although the official Roman Catholic figure for El Salvador is 88.4% of the population, Johnstone notes that in reality only 75.1% of the population  would be considered Roman Catholic (1993:207).  

Cultural Aspects  

El Salvador retains a rich background from the many native cultures that inhabited the country thousands of years before the Spanish first stepped onto this land. A background that is still brought to life through dances, ceremonies, beliefs, and a wide variety of artifacts which contribute to define the special identity of this people, an identity that is the product of the bonding of two different races: The native Indians and the Spanish.

San Salvador's festivities are celebrated during the first week of August-with great gaiety, color and religious spirit, in honor of its patron, The Savior of the World. The popular celebrations include folk dances, parades, and many different games and competitions for young people and children. There is no city, village or town, that does not count on the protection of its own Patron Saint, whose festival is celebrated with splendor once a year.

Especially famous are the July festivities in Santa Ana, second largest city in the country, which is a prosperous urban town with plenty of commercial and industrial activity. The Department of Santa Ana is characterized for being one of the largest coffee bean producers, El Salvador's first export product. Its festival is dedicated to the Mother of the Holy Virgin Mary. (Biron and Jimenéz  1995:Culture)  

   

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